^5o 















Class 

Book. 


As 


Copyright N?_ 


COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 
































TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES—PART I, NO. 1 



A PRIMER of INFORMATION ABOUT THE 
MECHANICAL FEATURES OF PRINTING 
TYPES: THEIR SIZES, FONT SCHEMES, &c. 
WITH A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF 
THEIR MANUFACTURE 


COMPILED BY 


A. A. STEWART 


n 

INSTRUCTOR, SCHOOL OF PRINTING 
NORTH END UNION, BOSTON 



PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON APPRENTICES 
UNITED TYPOTHETAE AND FRANKLIN CLUBS OF AMERICA 

1914 




Copyright, 1914 
by Committee on Apprentices 
United Typothetae and 
Franklin Clubs of America 


I < t 


Composition alid'presswork by 
Pupils in the Typothetae School of Printing 
North End Union, Boston 


OCT -9 1914 

©CI.A380845 


PREFACE 


o~ 


i 


-a 


^pHIS treatise is the first of a series of text-books, pub- 
fished under the general title of Typographic Technical 
Series for Apprentices , which have been prepared for the use 
of printers’ apprentices and students of typographic printing. 

As will be noted by the table of contents, only the me¬ 
chanical features of type and the usual methods of its man¬ 
ufacture have been considered here. No attempt has been 
made to review the history of type-faces or the development 
of type-making processes. These phases of the subject are 
considered in other publications of the series and in supple¬ 
mentary reading recommended for students. 

It is not what they are but what they can be made to do 
under the control of trained intelligence and skilful hands 
that makes printer’s types of importance to the world. No 
tools used in modern industry seem simpler than these little 
pieces of metal, yet they are the product of the most highly 
specialized skill and ingeniously perfected mechanisms. To 
the young printer their physical elements are matters of first 
concern. An understanding of these elements may be only 
a small part of his trade education, but it is important. The 
possibilities and the limitations of type can be appreciated 
only by thorough familiarity with the technical details and 
niceties provided by the modern typefounder. 

A special feature of this series of technical publications 
is the fist of Review Questions, which will be found at the 
end of each treatise. These questions cover the essential 
points in each subject and will be of assistance to instruc¬ 
tors, for examinations, etc. A fist of the other titles of the 
series, as well as a statement of their plan and scope, will 
be found at the end of this publication. 


3 




CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Features of a Type.8 

A Font of Type.9 

Scheme for Job Font.11 

Scheme for 100-lb. Font .12 

The Sizes of Type.13 

Lining Type Faces . 16 

Kerned Types.18 

Spaces and Quads.19 

How Type is Made.20 

The Linotype. 23 

The Monotype '.25 

Ingredients of Type Metal.26 

Wood Type .27 

Supplementary Reading.28 

Review Questions.29 

Glossary of Terms.32 






















TYPE:: A PRIMER OF INFORMATION 
ABOUT ITS MECHANICAL FEATURES 


P RINTING owes its development first and chiefly to 
movable metal types. The so-called invention of 
printing was the discovery of a method of making 
serviceable type in quantity. The idea of separate types for 
each letter of the alphabet was probably conceived long 
before Gutenberg’s time, but it remained for him and his 
associates to devise an apparatus for making them accurate 
enough to be of practical value. That apparatus was the type- 
mold, which experience has since proved to be the most 
efficient means of securing exactness and uniformity in a 
number of small pieces of metal. 

Type is made of an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony. Its 
length (technically called height-to-paper) is .918 of an inch. 
Each type is cast separately in a mold, and has the 
letter or printing character in bold relief on one end. 

The utility of printing type depends upon exact 
uniformity of the size of all the types assembled in 
a line, upon their squareness of body, and upon their 
conformity to the established standard of height. 

Exact uniformity of body is necessary in order that 
the types, when composed in lines and pages, may 
be locked together by pressure at the sides so as to 
make a compact mass. All type in a printing form must be 
of the same height, so that their faces may present a uni¬ 
formly level surface from which an impression may be made 
that will show all the characters clearly. A type shorter than 
its mates will print faintly or will not print at all; while one 
that is longer will be unduly forced into the sheet. 

There are on an average about one hundred and fifty 
roman letters and other characters required in ordinary 
book printing. These letters are divided into a number of 
classes: full-body letters, ascending letters, descending let¬ 
ters, short letters; and, in some cases, small capitals, which 
larger than short letters but not so tall as capitals or 

7 



are 








8 


FEATURES OE A TYPE 


J OBhabitpyz 


ascenders. Only a few letters, like J and Q, cover nearly 
the entire surface on the end of the type; other letters, like 

B h 1 i, cover the upper 
portion chiefly and leave 
a blank space at the bot¬ 
tom; while the small letters, like a e o u v, occupy only the 
middle portion of the surface; still others, like gyp, cover 
the middle and lower portions of the surface. As all these 
irregular shapes must be made to appear in line with each 
other, the type-body on which they are made is larger than 
the letter. The blank parts around the face of a letter are 
called the counter, the shoulder, and the 
beard. The counter is the shallow place 
between the lines of the face. The shoul¬ 
der is the low flat part of the type around 
the face. The beard is the sloping part 
between the face and the shoulder. 

An important feature of a type is the 
nick on the side of the body. In many 
cases there may be two, three,or even four 
nicks on a type. Usually all the types of 
a font have nicks that are identical in 
number and position, and when the types 
are composed in lines these nicks match 
each other and form continuous grooves 
on the lower part of the line of type. 

The nicks serve as guides to the com¬ 
positor when taking the type from the case to his composing- 
stick, and they assist in distinguishing the types of one font 
or face from those of another on the same size of body.* 
Individual letters of different type faces sometimes hear 



a a, the face 
B b, the serifs 
c CN the counter 
e, the pin-mark 
f f, the beard 
r., the shoulder 
h, the nick 
j j. the feet 
k, the groove 


* In old or much-used fonts to which additions have been made 
after the first supply, the new letters, being cast later in a different 
mold, may often show a difference in the position or the number of 
nicks. In cases of this kind the apprentice should observe carefully 
and inquire before deciding that a type with a different nick does not 
belong to the font. 













A FONT OF TYPE 


9 


such close resemblance that they are more readily distin¬ 
guished by the nick or some other body-mark than by the 
face. A difference in alignment of nicks in a line will read¬ 
ily show the presence of a wrong-font letter. Typefound¬ 
ers sometimes make an extra nick on a few small-capitals 
(o s v w x z) in order to distinguish these types from the 
lower-case letters of the same font. 

A Font of Type 

A font of type is an assortment of one size and kind that 
is used together. It is usually all the type in the composing- 
room of a certain kind matching in body, nick, and face. 
A small font may be held in one case, but several cases may 
be required for a font of large quantity. 

An ordinary font of roman type for book work will in¬ 
clude these characters: 

Roman Capitals — ABCDEFGH IJKLMNO 
PQRSTUVWXYZ^CE 

Small Capitals — abcdefghij klmnoporst 

UVWXYZiECE 

Lower-Case Letters* — abcdefghijklmnopqr 
stuvwxyzaeoefiflffffiffl 

Figures —1 2 3 4567890 (or oldstyle i 2 345^7^9°) 

Marks of Punctuation ~ Period . comma , colon: semi¬ 
colon; hypen - apostrophe ’ exclamation-mark! question- 
mark ? parenthesis ( bracket [ The latter two are used in 
pairs () [ ] , the second type being set in reversed position. 

Dashes — En - em — two-em- three-em- 

Reference Marks —Asterisk or star * dagger t double dag¬ 
ger t section § parallel II paragraph II index (hand, or fist) OClr" 

* The small letters are called lower-case by printers because they 
are commonly kept in the lower case of a pair on the case-stand. 






10 


A FONT OF TYPE 


Braces — Two-em three-em pieced braces 

, - K -\ made on em bodies, which may be extended more 

or less with dashes f - A -\ 

The dollar-mark $, short-and (or round-and) &, and ster¬ 
ling pound-mark £ are also included with all full fonts. 

Many styles of roman types have italic letters to match, 
but the italic fonts include only capitals, lower-case, figures, 
and punctuation marks: 

Italic Capitals—A BCDEFGHIJKLMNOP 
QRSTUV IV XYZ/ECE 

Italic Lower-case — abcdefgh ijklm n o p q r s t u v 
w x y z o’ ae 

Italic Figures — 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 ( 1234567890 ) 

Italic Points , * etc. — ? ) $ & 

Small capitals are not made for italic fonts, except in rare 
cases. When they are needed in composition, capitals of a 
smaller size of type are justified into the text line. 

Other extra characters, not included in ordinary fonts but 
which may be added to the foregoing when required, are 
accented letters (a e i 6 u etc.), fractions ^ 13 ), math¬ 
ematical signs (-f Xt = etc.), superior ( 84am ) and infe¬ 
rior (12 ab) letters and figures, leaders for tables and blanks 

(...), commercial signs (@ lb F % 0 , and many other 

characters for special kinds of printing. 

Fonts of advertising, jobbing, and display types usually 
consist of the capitals, lower-case letters, figures, and points, 
with occasionally a few extra characters. For many recent 
styles of heavy faces the founders have furnished fractions, 
accented letters, and other special characters to match in 
boldness of face, but these are not included in ordinary let¬ 
ter-fonts, and must be ordered specially. 

* The period, comma, hyphen, apostrophe, and occasionally some 
other character (such as the $) are often the same in both roman and 
italic fonts that are intended as companion faces. 




A LETTER EONT 


11 


The quantity of each character apportioned to a regular 
font is the estimated average required for ordinary compo¬ 
sition in the English language. It is rare that more than a 
fra&ion of a small font can be used in any piece of com¬ 
position. No general scheme can meet the needs of every 
kind of work; tables and statistical matter will need extra 
figures, directories and other lists will call for surplus capi¬ 
tals, dialogue matter will need more than the usual portion 
of commas and apostrophes for quote-marks; even plain 
descriptive composition will often call for extra ‘ ‘ sorts. ’ ’ 
Eor these and other peculiar kinds of composition extra 
quantities of some characters, as ,well as other material, 
must be provided. 

Ordinary roman and other faces used in large quantities 
are measured by weight. The proportion of letters in a 100- 
pound font, showing the proportions of each character, is 
given on the next page. Miscellaneous faces used in small 
quantities are put up in fonts containing a certain number of 
each letter, the size of the font being designated by the num¬ 
ber of capital A’s and lower-case a’s it contains. 




Scheme for 

15-A 30-a 

Job Font of 12-Point * 


CAPITALS 

CAPITALS 

LOWER-CASE 

LOWER-CASE 

POINTS 


A 


. . 15 

R . . 

. . 15 

f . . 


12 

w . . . . 12 

i 

9 

B 


. . 6 

S . . 

. . 15 

g - • 


12 

x . . . . 6 


8 

C 


. . 10 

T . . 

. . 15 

h . . 


20 

y .... 12 

( . . . . 

6 

D 


. . 8 

u . . 

. . 8 

i . . 


30 

z ... . 6 



E 


. . 18 

V . . 

. . 5 

j • • 


8 

fi . . . . 3 

FIGURES 


F 


. . 7 

w . . 

. . 6 

k . . 


8 

fl . . . . 3 

1 

5 

G 


. . 7 

X . . 

. . 3 

1 . . 


20 

ft ... . 3 

2 

4 

H 


. . 8 

Y . . 

. . 6 

m . . 


16 

ffl ... . 2 

3 

4 

I 


. . 15 

Z . . 

. . 3 

n . . 

. . 

30 

ffl ... . 2 

4 . . . . 

4 

J 

m # 

. . 5 

& . . 

. . 6 

o . . 

. # 

30 


5 . . . . 

4 

K 

. . 

. . 5 



P - • 

• . 

12 

POINTS 

6 . . . . 

4 

L 

. • 

. . 10 

LOWER-CASE 

q . . 

• . 

6 

period . . 31 

7 ... . 

4 

M 

. • 

. . 8 

a . . 

. . 30 

r . . 

. • 

30 

comma . 31 

8 ... . 

4 

N 

. . 

. . 15 

b . . 

. . 12 

s . . 

. . 

30 

colon . . 6 

9 . . . . 

5 

0 

• . 

. . 15 

c . . 

. . 16 

t . . 

. • 

30 

semi-colon 6 

0 . . . . 

6 

P 

. • 

. . 8 

d . . 

. . 18 

u . . 

• • 

16 

hyphen . 9 

$ . . . . 

4 

Q 

• • 

. . 3 

e . . 

. . 40 

v . . 

• • 

8 

apostrophe 13 

£ . . . 

1 


*Job fonts are usually put up by founders in two sections, one containing capitals, figures, 
and points; the other lower-case, with a small portion of points. Diphthongs 7E CE ae ce are 
not now included in job fonts, and many advertising type fonts do not include the lower-case 
ligatures fi ff fl ffi ffl. 
































12 


A WEIGHT FONT 


Proportion of Letters, &c. in 100 lb. of Roman Type 


CAPITALS 

SMALL CAPS. 




OZ 



OZ 

A . 



. 814 

A . . 


. 214 

B . 



. 5 

B . . 


. 114 

C . 



. 714 

C . . 


. 2 

D . 



. 614 

D . . 


. 2 

E . 



.10 

E . . 


. 314 

F . 



. 5 

F . . 


. 114 

G . 



. 5/4 

G . . 


. 114 

H . 



. 614 

H . . 


. 2 

I . 



. 6 

I . . 


. m 

J • 



. 414 

J • • 


. in 

K . 



. 4 

K . . 


. 114 

L . 



. 6 

L . . 


. 2 

M . 



. 714 

M . . 


. 214 

N . 



. 714 

N . . 


. 214 

O . 



. 714 

O . . 


. 214 

P . 



. 6 

P . . 


. m 

Q . 



. 214 

Q • • 


. 3 A 

R . 



. 8 

R . . 


.'214 

S . 



. 8 

S . . 


. 214 

T . 



. 9 

T . . 


. 214 

U . 



. 5 

U . . 


. 114 

V . 



. 314 

V . . 


. 1 

W . 



. 7 

W . . 


. 2 

X . 



. 2 

X . . 


. 3 4 

Y . 



. 414 

Y . . 


. IX 

Z . 



. 2 

z . . 


. 14 

JE. 



. % 

JE . . 


. 14 

CE. 



. 3 A 

CE . . 


. 14 

& . 



. 314 

& . . 


. l 




10/3 



3/3 


FIGURES 


oz 

1 . . . . 

. 8 

2 ... . 

. 614 

3 . . . . 

. 514 

4 ... . 

. 5 

5 . . . . 

. 614 

6 . . . . 

. 5 

7 . . . . 

. 5 

8 . . . . 

. 5 

9 . . . . 

. 5 

0 . . . . 

. 10 

$ . . . . 

. 2 

£ . . . . 

. 14 

4 lb 

POINTS 


lb oz 

period . 

. 1 - 

comma 

. 1 8 

colon . 

. - 2 

semi-colon - 3 

hyhpen. 

. - 9 

apostrophe - 4 

! 

. - 2 

) 

. - 2 

— 

. - 3 

( . . . 

. - 2 

[ • • • 

. - 1 


4 4 

SPACES 

AND 

QUADS 


lb oz 

hair 

- 2 

5-to-em 

- 10 

4-to-em 

1 - 

3-to-em 

6 - 

en-quad 

2 4 

em 

1 10 

2-em 

4 2 

3-em 

4 4 


20/3 


totals ib 

Capitals.10 


Small capitals 
Lower-case . . 
Figures . . . 
Points .... 
Spaces and quads 


3 

58H 

4 

414 

20 

100/3 


LOWER CASE 

lb oz 


a 

b 

c 

d 

e 

f 

g 

h 

i 

j 

k 

1 

m 

n 

o 

P 

q 

r 

s 

t 

u 

V 

w 

X 

y 

z 

ae 

oe 

fi 

ff 

ffi 

fl 

ffl 


1 


14 


8 
1 

4 
8 

12 

5 
8 
8 

10 

6 

4 
6 

5 

5 

6 
12 

2 

- 14 
1 10 
5 
4 

4 
1 
1 

5 
4 
4 
3 
3 


58 12 


Weight fonts of body type are usually put up by the found¬ 
ers in sections or parts of fonts as given in the above sum¬ 
mary of totals, so that one or more of these sections may 
be obtained to supplement a font already in use. 

It will be noted that braces, dashes, and reference-marks 
are omitted in the above list. These characters, like frac¬ 
tions, commercial signs, etc., are not now considered parts 
of ordinary fonts, but are put up in separate packages and 
must be specially ordered when wanted. 











































THE SIZES OF TYPE 


13 


Font schemes apportioned in quantities like the foregoing 
are more or less closely adhered to for original packages 
of foundry-cast type. To insure precision in speaking or 
writing, it is necessary to state not only the quantity (by 
number of letters or weight) but also whether a complete 
font or part of a complete font (capital font, lower-case 
font, or figure font) is referred to. 

The Sizes of Type 

All printing type has, first, a name denoting its size, and 
second, one denoting the style of its face. For instance, the 
type used for the text of this book is 10-point (its size) Lin¬ 
ing Caslon Oldstyle (the foundry name of its face). 

The size of a type is the vertical thickness of its body — 
the thickness of a line up and down the page; the width of 
a type is its set. Thus a 12-point en-quad is 12-point body 
and 6-point set, a 10-point figure of the thickness of an en- 
quad is 10-point body and 5-point set, etc. The total length 
of a type, including feet and face, is its height-to-paper. 

American type sizes conform to a graduated scale known 
as the point system. The unit of the system is a division of 
space called a point (.0138+ of an inch), and all type bodies 
are multiples of and are measured by it. The great variety 
of type faces made by founders nowadays makes it neces¬ 
sary to use several words to name a specific type, but each 
size is described by its number of points. 

Beginning with 6-point, the usual sizes are graduated by 
two points up to 14-point (6, 8, 10, 12, 14), then 18-point; 
larger sizes are multiples of 6-point up to 60-point (18, 24, 
30, 36, 42, 48, 54, 60). Still larger sizes are 72-point, 84- 
point (rare), 96-point, 120-point, and 144-point — the latter 
size being the largest type commonly cast in a mold. 

In addition to these, there are frequently a few inter¬ 
mediate sizes, such as 7-point, 9-point, 11-point, etc. 
Sizes smaller than 6-point (4-point, 4)4-point, 5-point, 



14 


THE SIZES OE TYPE 


5/4-point) are also made, hut type smaller than 5-point is 
not practicable for extended use. These small sizes are em¬ 
ployed for special purposes, like miniature editions of books 
(parts of the Bible, prayer books, etc.) cut-in notes, piece- 
fractions, small borders, special characters, and occasional 

words or lines that are 

lABCDEFGHIJKabcdefghijklmnopqrstw 

|ABCDEF abcdefghijklmnop 
io-point J|ABCDEabcdefghijklmr 

jjABCDEabcdefghi 
|||ABCDabcdghi 


6-point 

8-point 


12-point 


14-point 


18-point 


24-point 


10-point 


16-point 


required to be put in the 
smallest possible space. 
The size of type known 
as agate (fourteen lines 
to an inch) is considered 
the common standard of 
measurement for news¬ 
paper and magazine ad¬ 
vertising space. 

Many plain types for 
books, periodicals, etc., 
are made only in small 
sizes. Certain faces are 
made in a few sizes only, 
while others are made in 
more or less complete 
series from 6-point to 
48-point. The irregular 
sizes of 5/4-point, 7- 
point, 9-point, and 11- 
point are mostly roman 
faces, with companion 
italics, and a few bolder 
styles for headings and 
other display in combi¬ 
nation with romans of 
the same body. Many 
new faces are now made 
by founders in graded series from 6-point to 72-point, and 
in some cases even larger. Type faces adapted to many 


42-point 


48-point 


DEFcdjklu 

BCabyc 

Bangl 

Bats 

B1 d 

Ht 


The above squares show one em of the sizes stated. 
The letters show the size of face made on the body. 




























































































































































THE SIZES OF TYPE 


15 


kinds of work are made in nearly all the regular sizes, while 
those faces designed for small and dainty work, like per¬ 
sonal and society cards and stationery, are made only in 
the smaller sizes of the list. 


Types are now often cast with faces larger or smaller 
than is commonly made on the body, such as a 12-point face 
on 10-point body, giving the effect of compactness; or an 
8 -point face made on a 10-point body, which gives a lighter 
appearance as if opened with 2-point leads. These are 
known as bastard types. Because of this irregularity in the 
faces of types it is difficult to know the exact body-size of a 
type by merely examining a printed sheet. 

Borders, ornaments, florets, and decorative characters 
cast on type-bodies are now made mostly in sizes based on 
the 6-point as the unit (6, 12, 18, 24-point, and larger mul¬ 
tiples), but 8-point, 10-point, and 
14-point sizes are sometimes used. 

Before the adoption of the point 
system, type sizes were named in a 
haphazard way. Arbitrary names 
were given to certain sizes and in 
many cases types of the same name 
made by different founders varied 
so much in size that they could not 
be used together without great in¬ 
convenience to the printer. Some 
of these old names still sur- 


POINT SIZE 

3- point . 

4- point 
4y2-point . 

5- point , 
5 y>-point . 

6- point , 

7- point . 

8- point , 

9- point 

10- point . 

11- point , 

12- point . 
14-point 
16-point 


18-point 

20-point 

22-point 

24-point 

28-point 

32-point 

36-point 

40-point 

44-point 

48-point 


OLD NAME 

. excelsior 
. brilliant 
. diamond 
. pearl 
. agate 
. nonpareil 
. minion 
. brevier 
. bourgeois 
. long primer 
. small pica 
. pica 
. english 
. Columbian 
\ great primer 
( three-line nonpareil 
. paragon 

. two-line small pica 
. two-line pica 
. two-line english 
. two-line Columbian 
. two-line great primer 
. two-line paragon 
. meridian 


vive and are applied to the 
point-system bodies which 
approximate the old sizes. 

While these old names and 
their sizes are now nearly ob¬ 
solete, young printers should 
learn the names and associate 
them with their correspond- 
canon, four-line pica ing sizes of the point system. 



16 


LINING TYPE FACES 


In the foregoing list there are several intermediate sizes (16, 
20, 22, 28, 32, 40, 44-point) rarely used for type of recent 
design. Fonts of these odd sizes may be sometimes found, 
and there has been a size of 15-point made, but little used. 
These odd sizes are, however, mostly old faces, scripts, and 
black-letter, originally cast on old bodies and later, after the 
introduction of the point system, made on new bodies which 
are nearest to their original sizes. 

The point system has been applied to the width of types, 
as well as to the body-size; that is, the set of each type-is 
fixed at a given number of points or fraction thereof. This 
method simplifies in a degree the process of accurate justi¬ 
fication, as each line, though containing various letters and 
spaces, is composed of the same number of units. An ad¬ 
vantage over the old method of unrelated widths is in the 
saving of time in composition, by reducing the number of 
different widths in the characters of the alphabet. By the old 
method each type had its own special width; in a complete 
font there might be a hundred or more different widths. By 
the modern point system those characters which are nearly 
alike in width are made on the same set, or, if different, the 
variation is governed by the standard unit. 

Lining Type Faces 

American founders have adopted the practice of casting 
type-faces on uniform lining systems, variously known as 
American line, standard line, uniform line, etc. The earlier 
practice was to cast the type of a font so that the letters 
would align at the bottom only with their mates of the same 
font, without reference to any other face of type. When 
the compositor had occasion to use two or more different 
faces of type in the same line, these faces were rarely in even 
alignment, but were irregularly high or low, as shown in 
the accompanying example [a]. This lack of uniformity 
made it necessary when a different face was used in the line, 



LINING TYPE FACES 


17 


[a] 

H H H H //m m m m?// 

Showing: irregular alignment of faces, 
the old method. 

[b] 

HHHH//mmmm m 

Showing exact alignment of different 
faces, the modern way. 


as is often required in jobbing and advertisements, to use 
thin leads, cards, or pieces of paper above and below differ¬ 
ent parts of the type-line in order to get the faces in line — 
an operation more or less troublesome and expensive. By 
the modern lining system, 
the faces made on any 
given size of body are cast 
to align with each other, 
as shown in the second 
example [b] . These dif¬ 
ferent faces require no 
more adjustment than if 
they were all of one font. 

On different sizes of type the shoulder, or blank space, at 
the bottom of the letter increases gradually with the size of 
the type, so that a word of small type placed beside a larger 
size must have some spacing material below as well as above 
to keep it in its right alignment. The lining system provides 
that this necessary difference in face-alignment of various 

sizes is graduated by points, 
and when more than one size 
is used in the same line the 
justification is made by using 
point-body leads. This makes 
the use of slips of card and paper unnecessary and secures 
greater accuracy and solidity of the composed page. 

Faces of radically different style are not, however, all cast 
on the same alignment, but are classified usually into three 
groups. One group embraces the great majority of type¬ 
faces, those having capitals and lower-case with normal 
descending letters, g y p j. Another group embraces fonts 
of capitals only, mostly faces known as title letters and com¬ 
bination lining faces, which, having no descenders, may be 
made lower on the body. A third group includes those 
faces having long descenders, like script types, which must 
be high on the body. 



HHHh 


mHhn 


30-point to 6-point lined up with 1-point 






18 


KERNED TYPE 


A common class of “lining” types for job work are the 
combination series, or those having two or more sizes of 

face (capitals only) cast 
on bodies of the same 
size. Each face is made 
to line with the others 
on the same body, and 
all the faces are readily 
used in combination, with a single size of spaces and quads, 
in order that the type of each face may be readily distin¬ 
guished, the nicks are varied in number or position — a 
single nick for one face, two nicks for another, etc. 


American lining system 

H Hhh 

M M M mmmm 

Four sizes 

Three sizes Four sizes 

on 6-point 

on 12-point on 6-point 


Kerned Types 


When the face of a letter is so large that it projects over 
the type-body, it is known as a kerned type. Letters of this 
kind are common in italic and script fonts, and there are a 
few letters, like fandj, in some oldstyle roman fonts which 

_ have the tip of the let- 



0 / m f\ MMMk 

I / I / / 


Showing why some letters must be made on kerned types. 


ter overhang. Kerned 
types are a source of 
trouble because of the 
ease with which these 



projections break off during composition, proofing, etc. Yet 
they cannot be entirely dispensed with, espe¬ 
cially in italic and script faces having a definite 
slope, where the long letters would have wide 
gaps on the side (as shown in the script line 
above) if they were cast on bodies wide enough 
to hold the entire face. In some styles of up¬ 
right faces having extra long descending let¬ 
ters g, p, q, y, these descenders may be kerned. 

Modern type-makers try, by changing the shape of the 
letters slightly, to avoid kerns as much as possible, because 
of the extra care and expense involved in casting. Too 


Large italic letters 
are sometimes mor¬ 
tised at the corners, 
instead of kerned, 
to allow the next 
letter to fit close. 








SPACES AND QUADS 


19 


often, unfortunately, this avoidance of the kern, in order to 
meet mechanical convenience, is secured by sacrificing the 
distinctive form of the letter. 

Spaces and Quads 


10-point Spaces 
and Quads 


hair space 


five-to-em 


four-to-em 


three-to-em 


en quad 


em quad 


two-em 


three-em 


Short metal spaces and quads (from quadrat , a square), used 
for blanks between words and elsewhere, are of various 
thicknesses, as illustrated below. An em is a square of type 
body of any size. This 10-point em □ is ten points square; 
a 10-point three-to-em space is one third of the em, a four- 

to-em is one fourth, etc. The en quad is 
really a thick space, though called a quad, 
and is equal to half the em. Larger blanks 
are the two-em and three-em quads, used to 
fill the last lines of paragraphs and other 
wide spaces. 

The metal blanks shown here are the reg¬ 
ular spaces and quads belonging to a font of 
type of the size of 10-point. They enable the 
compositor to obtain the many different 
spacings required to make lines the required 
length, and to properly separate words and 
place them wherever desired in the line. 
While these thicknesses of spaces are the usual kinds for 
sizes of type up to 12-point, larger types may have other 
kinds of spaces, six-to-em, eight-to-em, and even smaller 
divisions. The thickness of the hair space does not always 
bear the same proportion to the em quad; in some sizes it 
is one sixth of the em, in others it may be one eighth or one 
twelfth. Very thin spaces (copper -point, brass 1-point), 
for exadl spacing and justifying, are supplied by dealers. 


I 

I 

I 

1 


A space of the thickness intermediate between the three- 
to-em and the en quad, known as a patent space, has been 
made for use in book work. Although it has great advantage 
as a substitute for two of the thinner spaces when these are 






20 


HOW TYPE IS MADE 


needed in spacing a line, its use has been limited and it is 
not included with the usual assortment furnished by dealers. 

The common spaces and quads for general work, when 
the type itself is used for printing, are about seven-eighths of 
the height of the type, so that they are well below the print¬ 
ing surface. A type-page composed with these spaces will 
have a little deep hole at the top of each space. These nu¬ 
merous little holes present a difficult surface for making a 
good wax mold when an electroplate is made for printing. 
Where much molding is to be done, higher spaces, quads 
and other blanks are provided. These high spaces and quads 
reach nearly to the shoulder of the type. 

How Type is Made 

The mold in which type is cast consists of two essential 
parts — the steel box in which the body is formed, and 
the matrix which contains a sunken image of the character. 

The matrix covers 
the opening at one 
end of the mold, and 
on the opposite end 
(which is the foot of 
the type) is an open¬ 
ing through which 
the melted metal is 
injected. A mold is 
made for a single 
body-size of type, but 
it is adjustable side¬ 
ways to correspond 
to the various widths 
of the letters in an 
alphabet. One mold may be used to cast, in succession, all 
the letters of a font of type, or it may be used to cast any 
number of fonts of different faces that may be made on the 



Solid lines indicate one half of the mold. Dotted 
lines show the other half in position. Shaded por¬ 
tion represents type metal filling aperture in the 
mold. The molten type metal flows through the 
opening at A, down to the side B, where the mat¬ 
rix (not shown in this diagram) molds the face of 
the type. The tag of metal marked C is cut off after 
casting. D is a narrow flange on the mold which 
forms the nick on the under surface of the type body. 




































HOW TYPE IS MADE 


21 


H 


same body, by merely changing the matrices that form the 
face. The mold is made in two sections, which are fitted 
together so as to close up to the required width of the letter, 
and, after the cast is made, to open slightly in order 
to release the type. 

The Matrix. T here are three different methods of 
making type matrices. By the oldest method the first 
step is to cut the character on the end of a small bar 
of soft steel, called a punch; when this is done, the 
steel is hardened and it is used to stamp an impression 
Matrix j n a bar G f CO pper. This copper bar is a matrix in the 
rough, and its sides are next trimmed and squared so that it 
will fit the mold. 

The second method of making a matrix is by electrotype 
process. The original pattern of the letter may be engraved 
by hand or by other 


operation, or it may 
be a perfect type-face 
of a previous casting. 
This is fitted into a 
small frame of brass 
and then held in the 
vat of an electro-gal¬ 
vanic battery, which 
deposits a thick film 
of copper around the 


[ hi i r°i r~i 


lz: 

c= 

J e^ 


A — Ly ■■ 

r zi 

l—L . ^ 



Type-mold complete, in two parts, but without the 
matrix (which is shown separately above). Position 
of the matrix when cast is made is indicated by the 
letter H on the end of the type within the mold The 
upper and lower halves of the mold slide horizon¬ 
tally, to make the interior casting-box wide or nar¬ 
row to conform to required widths of various letters. 


pattern and fills the opening in the brass frame. When this 
electro-plating process is completed, the pattern letter is ex¬ 
tracted and the brass frame, with its copper impression of 
the letter, becomes the essential feature of the matrix. It is 
then reinforced by riveting another plate on the back, and is 
trimmed and fitted to place on the mold. 

A third process of making matrices is with an automatic 
matrix-cutting machine, in which the shape of the desired 
letter is cut in the face of a plate of composition metal by a 
small rapidly-revolving cutting point. A large pattern of the 

























22 


HOW TYPE IS MADE 


letter is placed in one part of the machine, and while the 
operator traces the outline with the point of a lever all the 
motions are duplicated in miniature by the cutting tool on 
the bar of metal, which becomes, when completed, a 
matrix. 

Casting the Type. The old-time method of casting type 
was with hand molds, the melted metal being poured in at 
the foot of the mold with a small ladle while the mold was 
held in the hand. In the modern casting machine, the mold, 
with its matrix, is assembled by the side of the metal pot, in 
which the metal is kept at a uniform temperature by means 
of a gas furnace. 

In the center of this metal pot is a rod with a spring at¬ 
tachment which, at each operation of the machine, acts as 
a plunger to force a small stream of hot metal through a side 
aperture into the jet-hole of the mold. After the casting, 
the two parts of the mold separate slightly, the matrix is 
drawn away from the face of the type, and the cast is moved 
out; then the mold and matrix close together again and the 
operation is repeated. Cold water or air is circulated near 
the mold to keep an even temperature. The matrix for one 
character only is placed in the machine and when enough 
types have been cast, it is taken out and replaced by another, 
the change usually requiring but a few moments. 

There are several kinds of type-casting machines in use, 
such as hand casters, steam casters, and automatic casters. 
The older style is the hand caster, which is operated by a 
small wheel with a handle attached. Steam casters are op¬ 
erated by mechanical power (orginally steam power). 

When type is cast by a hand machine it is unfinished, 
as a piece of metal called the jet still adheres to the bottom 
of each type. This jet is broken off, and the types are set 
in long lines and fastened in a narrow channel, face down. 
A small plane smooths away the rough surface caused by 
breaking off the jet. T his leaves a shallow groove on the 
bottom of each type and allows it to stand squarely on its 



THE LINOTYPE 


23 


feet. The types also have slight burs and sharp edges of 
metal which must be rubbed off before they are ready for 
inspection and for the font-room. Type cast on the older 
steam" machines require the jet to be broken off after the 
casting, and the final finishing of the type is done after¬ 
ward by other operations. These finishing touches are done 
mostly by hand, with the aid of a polishing stone or a small 
dressing wheel. 

On the automatic machine, which is the modern method 
of casting type, breaking off the jet, rubbing, dressing, etc., 
are all accomplished automatically on the machine, the 
types coming out in a continuous line practically ready for 
the compositor’s case. 

The foregoing describes in a general way the methods of 
making type by the regular founders. There is now a great 
deal of type made by automatic composing and casting ma¬ 
chines installed directly in many composing rooms. 

Two distinctive styles of these machines are now exten¬ 
sively used — the Linotype and the Monotype. Both of these 
have reached a high degree of efficiency because of their 
nice mechanisms, based on the principle of automatically 
operated molds, matrices, and delivery devices. 

In the Linotype the matrices for a desired line of words 
are assembled side by side and the line is cast in one piece. 

In the Monotype the mechanism automatically and rap¬ 
idly adjusts the matrix of the desired letters one at a time 
over the mold, and each type is cast and moved along into 
lines and then into a column on a galley. 

The Linotype 

The Linotype (line-o’-type) consists of a mechanism for 
assembling brass dies or matrices in lines, presenting them 
in front of a mold in which a type-high metal bar, or slug, 
is cast, and returning the matrices to their respective chan- 



24 


THE LINOTYPE 



nels for use again. The brass matrices have the characters 
of the alphabet, figures, points, etc., sunk into their edges; 
these are held in a magazine, which is an arrangement of 
channels in an inclined position above a keyboard. By the 
pressing of a key the required matrix is released, which 
drops and is carried into place by a small belt. Wedge- 
shaped space-bands are 
also controlled by a key, 
and when sufficient mat¬ 
rices and space-bands 
are assembled to make 
the line a bell rings. By 
operating a lever the 
line of matrices then 
moves in front of the 
mold inserted in the 
side of a wheel and 
behind which is a pot 
of melted metal. 

By the next opera¬ 
tion the space-bands 
are pushed between 
the words, thus spread¬ 
ing them to the meas¬ 
ure. The line justified, 
a plunger in the metal-pot forces a quantity of metal into the 
mold and against the lines of matrices, forming a slug with 
the letters in relief on one edge. After the cast is made, a 
turn of the mold-wheel and other mechanism shaves off the 
surplus metal on the foot of the slug and pushes it between 
knife-edges, where it is trimmed on the sides, and then out 
on to a galley. T he melting of the metal is done by a small 
gas furnace under the metal-pot. 

After the matrices have been used for the line they are 
lifted by an arm to the top of the machine and distributed 
again, each character in its particular channel in the mag- 


Four-Magazine Linotype Machine 



































THE MONOTYPE 


25 


azine. The matrices for each character have a set of notches 
or teeth different from every other character; and as they 
are moved along the distributing apparatus by horizontal 
screws each matrix reaches a point where its notches are 
matched and it drops into the top of its channel. There are 
a number of matrices of each character, and the arrange¬ 
ment of the machine is such that three lines of matrices may 
be kept in operation at once — one being assembled, one at 
the casting mold, and the third being distributed. 

The work of the operator is to manipulate the keyboard 
and, at the end of each line, move a lever which engages 
the mechanism that carries the assembled line to the mold. 
All other operations are performed by mechanical power. 

The Monotype 

The Lanston Monotype is a type-casting machine which 
produces separate types set in lines of any length, up to sixty 
ems pica, spaced and justified. It is in two 
parts — a keyboard and a casting machine. 

The function of the keyboard sec¬ 
tion is to punch a series of holes in 
a moving strip of paper, which un¬ 
winds from one spool to another, 
passing under a series of punches in 
its journey. The punches are oper¬ 
ated by pressing the keys on the key¬ 
board, the result of this operation being a 
roll of perforated paper ribbon. This rib¬ 
bon is then taken to the casting machine, 
which contains a pot for melted metal, a 
stationary mold for the size of type to be Monotype Keyboard 
cast, and a matrix-plate. The matrix-plate is about five inches 
square, and has on its face depressed images or matrices of 
each letter and character of the font. The perforated strip of 
paper, when fed to its place, controls the movement of the 













26 


TYPE METAL 


the matrix-plate, so that the required letter is adjusted exactly 
in place over the mold, while the melted metal is squirted in 
to form the type. The type then moves away and takes its 
proper place in the line, until the line is completed, when 
it is automatically moved out on 

The Monotype keyboard, being 
separate machine, may be and usu 
ated in any place away from the 
casting apparatus and work may 
be executed on it any time before 
casting. The perforated roll may 
be fed through any number of 
times to produce duplicate cast¬ 
ings of the matter, and a matrix- 
plate for a different face may be 
used if desired. In the casting of 
the line the proper spaces are cast 
with it, the spacing needed to jus¬ 
tify each line being indicated on 
the perforated record during composition on the keyboard. 

A peculiarity of Monotype composition is that, while the 
keyboard produces the perforated roll in the usual sequence 
from beginning to end of the story, the casting machine 
reverses the process by starting at the end of the composition 
and finishing up with the beginning. 

Ingredients of Type Metal 

The metal used for casting type is a mixture of lead (five 
parts), antimony (two parts), tin (one part), and some¬ 
times a small addition of copper. Lead forms the chief part 
of all type metal, as it melts easily and fuses readily with 
other metals; but lead alone is too soft for the service re¬ 
quired of type. Antimony is brittle and gives hardness, and 
tin is added to impart toughness. Lead and antimony in 
approximately these proportions make an alloy which has 















WOOD TYPE 


27 


the unusual quality of expanding slightly, instead of shrink¬ 
ing, when cooling, thus permitting a full, sharp cast in all 
parts of the mold. Tin flows readily when melted and in¬ 
creases the smoothness of the cast on the surface of the 
mold. A small quantity of copper may sometimes be added 
to give still greater toughness. 

The metal used for small sizes of type is commonly harder 
than that used for the large sizes, the softness of the metal 
gradually increasing with the size of type made. Script types 
and faces with delicate lines are usually cast with metal a 
little harder than that used for the normal and bolder faces. 

The foregoing refers more particularly to type cast by 
regular foundries. The metal used in automatic casting 
machines, like the Monotype, contains a larger proportion 
of lead and less antimony; while the metal used for casting 
line-slugs in the Linotype machine is composed of still larger 
proportion of lead and very little of the other two metals. 
Stereotype metaland metals used for leads, slugs, furniture, 
etc., are largely lead. 


Wood Type 

Large types, such as are used for posters and large bills, are 
made of wood. The smallest size for practical use is 48- 
point, or 4-line pica. Sizes of wood type are multiples of 
the pica, and are so named, as 8-line, 10-line, etc. They 
are much cheaper than metal types, though not as durable 
or satisfactory for printing. The wood commonly used is 
maple, and the letter is made on the end of the grain. It 
must be well seasoned and polished. Pine and other soft 
woods are used for very large sizes of wood type and poster 
engravings. 

The manner of cutting the letter is by routing away the 
blank parts with a small rapidly-revolving cutter. The strip 
of wood, large enough to make several letters, and planed 
type-high, is placed in a machine equipped with a pantagraph 



28 


WOOD TYPE 


apparatus. A pattern letter is put in place, and over this a 
guide-point is moved. On another part of the machine is the 
revolving cutting tool. As the guide-point is moved over the 
pattern its motions are duplicated on the block under the 
cutting tool, which cuts away the wood. When the letters 
on a block are thus routed out, they are sawed apart, the 
finishing touches given, and the letters oiled. 


SUPPLEMENTARY READING 

The Invention of Printing. By Theodore L. De Vinne. Oswald Pub¬ 
lishing Co., New York. Cloth, 557 pp. $6. 

Plain Printing Types. By Theodore L. De Vinne. Oswald Publish¬ 
ing Co., New York. Cloth, 476 pp. $2. 

The Monotype System. Published by the Lanston Monotype Machine 
Co., Philadelphia. 294 pp. and diagrams. 

The Mechanism of the Linotype. By John S. Thompson. The Inland 
Printer Co., Chicago. 216 pp. $2. 

History of Composing Machines. By John S. Thompson. The Inland 
Printer Co., Chicago. Cloth, 557 pp. $ 2 . 

Specimen Books of American Type Founders Co.; H. C. Hansen, 
Boston ; Barnhart Brothers & Spindler, Chicago ; Keystone Type 
Foundry, Philadelphia. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 


29 


SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS 

The following questions, based on the contents of this pamphlet, are 
intended to serve (1) as a guide to the study of the text, (2) as an aid 
to the student in putting the information contained into definite state¬ 
ments without actually memorizing the text, (3) as a means of securing 
from the student a reproduction of the information in his own words. 

A careful following of the questions by the reader will insure full 
acquaintance with every part of the text, avoiding the accidental omis¬ 
sion of what might be of value. These primers are so condensed that 
nothing should be omitted. 

In teaching from these books it is very important that these ques¬ 
tions and such others as may occur to the teacher, should be made the 
basis of frequent written work, and of final examinations. 

The importance of written work cannot be overstated. It not only 
assures knowledge of material but the power to express that knowl¬ 
edge correctly and in good form. 

If this written work can be submitted to the teacher in printed form 
it will be doubly useful. 


QUESTIONS 

1. What was the so-called invention of printing? 

2. What was Gutenberg’s contribution to printing? 

3. Describe a type. 

4. Upon what does the utility of type depend? Why? 

5. How many different characters are required in ordinary 

book printing? 

6. Into what classes are they divided? 

7. How much of the surface of a type is covered by the 

letter? 

8. How is the type body related in size to the letter face? 

Why? 

9. What are the blank parts around the face of the letter 

called ? 

10. Describe each part. 

11. What is the nick and what is its use? 

12. What is a font of type? 

13. In what is it kept for the compositor’s use? 

14. What characters are included in an ordinary font of 

roman type for book work? 

15. What can you say about small capitals? 

16. What can you say about other extra characters? 



30 


REVIEW QUESTIONS 


17. What characters do fonts of advertising and jobbing 

type include? 

18. Name some other characters supplied by the foundries? 

19. What determines the number of characters of the vari¬ 

ous sorts in a font of type? 

20. Is there any rule fitting all kinds of composition? 

21. Mention some special kinds of composition and tell 

what extra sorts each demands. 

22. How are ordinary faces measured when used in large 

quantities? 

23. How are job fonts designated? 

24. To what kind of type do these schemes apply? 

25. What are the three measurements for type? 

26. What is the “size” of a type? 

27. What is the “set” of a type? 

28. Describe the point system. 

29. What are the usual sizes of type? 

30. What other sizes are made and for what are they used? 

31. What determines the choice of sizes for any particu¬ 

lar face? 

32. What are bastard types? 

33. Can you always tell the size of type used by examining 

a printed page? Why? 

34. What is meant by height-to-paper? 

35. How were types described before the adoption of the 

point system? 

36. Give the old names in common use and the approxi¬ 

mate equivalents in points. 

37. What can you say of 16, 20, 22, 28, and 40-point sizes? 

38. What are the advantages of the application of the point 

system to the width of type? 

39. What is meant by “lining” type faces? 

40. What difficulty did this practice overcome? 

41. What is needed when a word of small type is placed 

beside a word of large type? Why? 

42. How is the line justified? 

43. Into what groups are type faces divided for aligning 

purposes? 

44. What are “combination series” of lining types? 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 


31 


45. What are kerned types? 

46. How is kerning avoided? 

47. What are the advantages and disadvantages of these 

expedients? 

48. What is an em quad? 

49. Describe the spaces used in type composition. 

50. Describe the mold used in type casting. 

5E Describe the three methods of making the matrix. 

52. What was the old method of casting type? 

53. What is the modern method? 

54. Describe the different kinds of type-casting machines. 

55. Describe the finishing of type after casting. 

56. How is type made outside the type foundries? 

57. What is a Linotype? 

58. What does a Linotype produce? 

59. Describe briefly the operation of a Linotype. 

60. How are Linotype matrices distributed? 

61. What does the operator have to do? 

62. What is a Monotype? 

63. What does a Monotype do? 

64. What are the essential differences between a Monotype 

and a Linotype? 

65. Describe the operation of the Monotype keyboard. 

66. Describe the operation of the casting machine. 

67. What peculiarity has the Monotype? 

68. What is type made of? 

69. What are the qualities of the several ingredients? 

70. What can you say of the uses of different metals in 

the type foundries? 

71. What sort of type metal is used in composing machines? 

72. What other material is used for type? 

73. Lor what purpose is it used? 

74. How is this kind of type made ? 



GLOSSARY OF TERMS RELATING TO TYPE 


The numbers in parentheses refer to preceding pages in the text, where 
further information about the different subjects may be found. 


Agate — A small size of type, about 5^2-point. (14) 

Ascending Letters — The tall letters of the lower-case alphabet. (7) 

Antimony — One of the ingredients of type-metal; a silver-white, 
hard crystalline metallic substance, used in chemistry and medi¬ 
cine, as well as in industrial arts. (26) 

Bastard Types — Those with faces larger or smaller than is com¬ 
monly made on a type-body. (15) 

Beard — The beveled space below the face of a type. (15) 

Body — The piece of metal upon which the face is cast. (7, 8, 13) 

Body Size — The size of a type considered from top to bottom of 
the letter. (13) 

Body Type —The kinds of type, mostly roman faces, used for plain 
composition in paragraphs or pages of one face; text letter. 

Borders — Characters cast in type, which may be adjustable in many 
ways, as for marginal lines, panels, and other decorative uses. (15) 

Bourgeois — An old size of type, about 9-point. 

Brass Type — For stamping book covers, etc. Ordinary type-metal 
cannot endure the heat which must be applied for stamping gold 
leaf, or printing on hard, rough surfaces. Brass types are more ex¬ 
pensive as well as more durable. 

Brevier — An old size of type nearly equal to 8-point. (15) 

Canon — An old size of type approximately 48-point. (15) 

Cap. —Abbreviation for capita] letter; s.c. or sm.cap., small capital. 

Copper-faced Type — New type coated by electric action, deposit¬ 
ing a thin film of copper, to make it more durable. 

Copper Thin Spaces— Extra thin spaces for justifying lines. (19) 

Corner Quads —Blanks cast in this shape ^ matching 6-point and 
12-point quads ; placed outside the comers of pages with mitered 
brass rules to keep the joints in place. 

Counter — The blank space within the lines of a letter or other char¬ 
acter. (8) 

Descending Letters — Those which have part of the face below the 
regular alignment, g, p, y. (8) 

Diamond — A small size of type, equal to about 4^-point. (15) 

Display Type — A general term meaning the kinds of type made for 
advertising, title pages, and other composition in which different 
sizes and faces are used; in distinction from body type. 

Em —The square of a type body. En, half the width of the square. (19) 

Extended, Expanded — An extra wide face of type. 


32 



GLOSSARY 


33 


Face — That part of a type or printing surface which leaves its impres¬ 
sion upon the sheet. ( 8 ) 

Feet — The bottom of the type body. ( 8 ) 

Font — A complete assortment of type of one size and face. (9) 

Furniture —A general term applied to pieces of soft metal, steel, or 
wood, used to fill the large blank spaces in a printing form 5 made 
in different sizes based upon a 12 -point (pica) unit. 

Great Primer — An old size of type nearly equal to 18-point. (15) 

Hair Spaces — Very thin spaces. (19) 

Height-to-paper —The length of a type from top to bottom, in¬ 
cluding feet and face. This is not measured by points, but by 
thousandths of an inch. See Type-high. (7,13) 

High Spaces and Quads — Used in type composition when the page 
is to be molded for ele&rotyping. ( 20 ) 

High-to-line — When the face of a type is above the regular align¬ 
ment of the other letters in the line; when below the alignment 
it is low-to-line. (17) 

Hollow Quads — Large blanks are sometimes cast with hollow parts 
to make them lighter and to economize metal. See Quotations. 

Italic —The style of letters that slope fornxard, in distinction from 
upright, or roman, letters. ( 10 ) 

Jet —The waste metal at the bottom of a type when it is first cast, 
being the metal which cools in the aperture of the mold. (22) 

Job Font —A small assortment of type. (11) 

Job Type—T he kinds used for miscellaneous work, usually in small 
fonts, in distinction from book type, body letter, etc. 

Kerned Types — Those which have a small part of the face project¬ 
ing over the body. (18) 

Laying Type —Putting a font of type into cases. 

Leaders — Dots or short dashes placed at intervals in open lines to 
guide the eye, as in indexes, price-lists, etc. They are cast like 
quads for sizes of type most used. Leaders are-also made of brass. 

Letter — Sometimes this word is used to mean type. Letter-press 
printing, that done with type. Letter foundry, a type foundry. 

Lining Type —The exaCt agreement at top or bottom of the face 
on a type-body. (16-18) 

Linotype — A machine for casting type in solid lines. (23) 

Long Primer —An old size of type nearly equal to 10-point. (15) 

Low-to-paper — Said of a type when it does not come up to the 
height of its mates; opposite of high-to-paper. (7) 

Low Spaces and Quads —Those used for ordinary composition, about 
seven-eighths of the length of the type. ( 20 ) 

Lower-case — The small letters of the alphabet. (9) 



34 


GLOSSARY 


Matrix — The shallow mold in which the face of a type is cast. (21 ) 

Minion — An old size of type, about 7-point. (13) 

Monotype —A machine for casting and composing types. (25) 

Mortised Type — When some part of the body is cut away, either 
in the interior or on the sides, to allow the insertion of another 
letter, or to fit closer to an adjoining type. (18) 

Music Type —An assortment of characters cast in type for printing 
music scores. 

Nick —The notch on the side of a type. (8) In fonts made for use on the 
Unitype composing machine each character has nicks in different 
position and combination from every other character, to fit its 
special channel, in order to control the various charafters in the 
operation of the machine. Thus the nicks in a line of Unitype 
matter show great irregularity. 

Nonpareil —Old name for size of type equal to 6-point; half pica. (15) 

Off Its Feet — Type must stand squarely upright in order to give 
a good impression; when it leans one way or the other it is off 
its feet. 

Paragon —An old size of type, about 20-point. (15) 

Patent Space — A type space thicker than three-to-em and less than 
the en-quad. (19) 

Pearl —An old size of type, about 5-point. (15) 

Pi — Types of different kinds mixed up in confusion. 

Pica — Old name, but still commonly used, for a size of type equal to 
12 -point. (15) A common unit of measurement in typography. 

Piece Fractions — Those made up of two or more types; the nu¬ 
merator and denominator cast separately, usually on bodies half the 
size of the whole numbers or text with which they are to be used. 
Sometimes called split fractions. 

Pin-mark — The little mark sometimes seen on the side of foundry- 
made type. (8) 

Point System — The standard system of type bodies, based on the 
point as a unit; in America the point is .0138 of an inch. Calcu¬ 
lations are simplified ordinarily by assuming the point as 1 /72 of an 
inch. (13) 

Poster Type — Large sizes for billboard printing, mostly made of 
wood. (27) 

Punch — In typefounding, an original die of a letter or character cut 
on the end of a steel har, used to make a matrix. (21) 

Quads — Metal blanks used for large spaces in composing type. (19) 

Quotations — Large hollow quads; similar to metal furniture. 

Rubber Type — Cast with a vulcanized-rubber face mounted on short 
metal bodies; not used in ordinary typographic printing, but classed 
with rubber hand stamps. 



GLOSSARY 


35 


Script — A general name for that class of type designed to imitate 
handwriting. (18) 

Sectional Type — A style of type now in disuse, in which each let¬ 
ter was made in two parts, the upper half being separate from the 
lower. Any letter or character cast in two or more parts. 

Serif — The short cross-line or tick at the end of the main strokes in 
roman letters. (8) 

Set — The width of a type. (13) 

Shoulder — The blank space on the top of a type not covered by the 
letter; specifically, the space above and below the letter, the space 
on the side being designated by typefounders as side-bearings. (8) 

Small Caps — A secondary set of capitals made for fonts intended for 
book work. They are slightly larger than the small (lower-case) 
letters, but smaller than the regular capitals. See the side-headings 
in this glossary. (9, 10, 12) 

Small Pica —An old size of type nearly equal to 11-point. (15) 

Spaces — Thin metal blanks used to separate words in a line. (19) 

Sort — Any particular letter or character of a font, in distinction from 
the complete assortment. “Out of sorts,” when some needed 
letters of a font are missing. 

Sort Order — A request for some particular character of a font. 

Two-line Letter — A large letter covering two lines of the adjoin¬ 
ing text, used for initials at the beginning of paragraphs. Two-line 
figures, used for displaying price-figures in advertisements, etc. 

Type-high — Of the standard height of type; said of an electrotype 
or engraving that is the right height to accompany type. (7) 

Type Metal —A composition of lead, tin, and antimony. (26) 

Typography —The process of printing with forms composed of mov¬ 
able types and small relief blocks. 

Weight Font —A complete assortment of type measured by its 
weight instead of by the number of each letter. (12) 

Weight of Type —Four square inches of type, composed solid, 
weigh approximately one pound. Thus, to find the weight of any 
given amount of type composition, find the number of square 
inches and divide by four. 

One pound of type (about 4 square inches) contains the following 
number of ems (solid) of the different sizes : 


18-point ... 64 ems 

12-point . . . 144 ems 
11-point . . . 170 ems 
10-point . . . 207 ems 


9-point . . . 256 ems 
8 -point . . . 324 ems 
7-point . . . 423 ems 
6 -point . . . 576 ems 



Typographic Technical Series 
for Apprentices 

r I 'HE following list of publications, comprising the Typographic 
A Technical Series for Apprentices, has been prepared under 
the supervision of the Committee on Apprentices of the United 
Typothetae and Franklin Clubs of America, for use in trade classes, 
in courses of printing instruction, and by individuals. 

Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or 
group of authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide 
the printers of the United States — employers, journeymen, and ap¬ 
prentices— with a comprehensive series of handy and inexpensive 
compendiums of reliable, up-to-date information upon the various 
branches and specialties of the printing craft, all arranged in orderly 
fashion for progressive study. 

The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5x8 inches, 
typography, illustrations, paper, etc. The number of pages in each 
title is stated hereafter. 

Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to em¬ 
body in each publication as completely as possible all the rudimentary 
information and essential facts necessary to an understanding of the 
subject. Care has been taken to make all statements accurate and 
clear, with the purpose of bringing essential information within the 
understanding of beginners in the different fields of study. Wherever 
pra6ficable, simple and w r ell-defined drawings and illustrations have 
been used to assist in giving additional clearness to the text. 

In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help for 
use in trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each title is accom¬ 
panied by a list of Review Questions covering all essential items of the 
subject matter. A short Glossary of technical terms belonging to the 
subject or department treated is also appended to each pamphlet. 

These are the official text-books of the United Typothetae and 
Franklin Clubs of America. 

The publications can be obtained in paper, cloth, or loose-leaf 
binding, as listed hereafter. The prices given include prepayment of 
postage for delivery. Address all orders or inquiries to 

TECHNICAL PUBLICATION DEPARTMENT 
UNITED TYPOTHETAE AND FRANKLIN CLUBS 

OF AMERICA 
36 


TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES for APPRENTICES 


PART I— Types , Tools, Presses , and Materials 

1. Type: a Primer of Information . . By A. A. Stewart 

Relating to the mechanical features of printing types; their sizes, font schemes, etc. 
35 pp. illustrated; 74 questions; glossary. Paper cover, 15 cents. 

2 . Compositor’s Tools and Materials . . By A. A. Stewart 

A primer of information about composing-sticks, galleys, leads, slugs, brass rules, fur¬ 
niture, cutting and mitering machines, etc. 30 pp. illustrated; 50 questions, and index. 
Paper cover, 15 cents. 

3. Type Cases and Composing-Room Furniture By H. L. Bullen 

Illustrated and their uses and advantages described. Cabinets for type, electros, and 
other material. Case stands and racks. 30 pp. Paper cover, 15 cents. 

4. Imposing Tables and Lock-up Appliances By Henry L. Bullen 

Describing the ordinary methods and materials for preparing printing forms for the 
press; modern helps and specialized efficiency processes. 24 pp. illustrated. Paper 
cover, 15 cents. 

5. Proof Presses and Apparatus .... By A. A. Stewart 

Hand press, galley presses, modern proofing apparatus. Self-inking and self-feeding 
proof presses. Proof planer and mallet. 30 pp. illustrated. Paper cover, 15 cents. 

6 . Platen Printing Presses. By Daniel Baker 

The hand press. Distinctive principles of Gordon, Golding, Universal, etc. Harris, 
Standard, Autopress, and other rapid machines. 48 pp. illustrated. Paper cover, 15 cents. 

7. Cylinder Printing Machines .... By Herbert L. Baker 

Representative styles of machines and their essential mechanical principles; with an 
analysis of details and movements. 48 pp. illustrated; 25 question. Paper cover, 25 cents. 

8 . Mechanical Feeders and Folders . . . Herbert H. Dexter 

The operation of typical modern machines; with hints on their care and adjustments. 

24 pp. illustrated; 20 questions. Paper cover, 25 cents. 

9. Power Machinery for Printers . . By M. W. Alexander 

Electric motors, their installation and care. Overhead and belt drives ; direct attach¬ 
ments ; speed rules, pulley diameters. 40 pp. illustrated; 50 questions. Paper cover, 

25 cents. 

10. Paper Cutting Machines 

Paper and card trimmers. Hand lever machines Power cutters; self-clamping and 
other automatic devices. Special cutting machines. 36 pp. illustrated; 25 questions, and 
glossary. Paper cover, 20 cents. 

11. Printers’ Rollers 

Their composition and methods of manufacture ; selection and care of rollers for vari¬ 
ous purposes. 25 pp. illustrated ; 25 questions. Paper cover, 15 cents. 

12. Printing Inks. By Philip Ruxton 

Some rudimentary information about their ingredients and manufacture; color pig¬ 
ments, varnishes, dryers, etc. Inks for various kinds of surfaces. 32 pp. illustrated; 40 
questions. Paper cover, 25 cents. 

13. Paper and Cardboard . . . By William B. Wheelwright 

Fibres and materials used; methods of manufacture; kinds most used for printing; fin¬ 
ish and color; standard weights and sizes; equivalent weights. Samples of staple grades 
and finishes, with approximate prices. 50 pp. illustrated; 100 questions; index and 
glossary. Paper cover, 25 cents. 


37 




TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES for APPRENTICES 


Part I (continued) — Printing Plates 

14. Relief Engravings. By Gustav Zeese 

General description of modern methods of engraving: the wood-cut, zinc plate, half¬ 
tone. Copy for reproduction. Relation of engraving to printing surface. Things to 
consider when ordering engravings. 40 pp. illustrated, 50 questions, index and glos¬ 
sary. Paper cover, 2 5 cents. 

15. Electrotypes and Stereotypes. By H. B. Hatch 

Invention and development of processes. Part I—How an electrotype is made; prepar¬ 
ing the form; the mold; depositing the copper shell; metal backing, trimming, and 
finishing. Part II—Making a stereotype; the matrix; the casting-box; trimming the 
cast. Modern stereotype casting machines for newspaper work. 40 pp. illustrated; 50 
questions, index and glossary. Paper cover, 25 cents. 

HEIP” Price of Part I Complete, in two volumes, cloth binding, SI.00 per volume; 
in half leather, SI.50 per volume. 

PART II — (a) Hand Composition 

16. Elements of Typesetting. By A. A. Stewart 

A handbook for beginners, giving detailed information relating to methods of justifying, 
spacing, and other details of typesetting. 32 pp. illustrated; 50 questions. Paper, 15 cents, 

17. Printers’ Proofs. By A. A. Stewart 

The methods by which they are taken, marked, and corrected; with observations on 
proofreading. 36 pp. illustrated; 40 questions. Paper cover, 15 cents. 

18. First Steps in Job Composition .... By R. F. Salade 

Helps for the young job-hand on letter forms, plain tabular work, price-lists, bank 
statements, blank forms, etc., showing the use of leaders, rules, fractions, commercial 
and other signs; with notes on appropriate types. 24 pp. illustrative examples; 25 ques¬ 
tions. Paper cover, 20 cents. 

19. Miscellaneous Job Composition . . By Harry Spencer Stuff 

How the good job compositor handles business stationery, programs, small “cuts” in 
type pages, large initials, type borders, mitered brass rules, and other job-work. 32 
pp. illustrative examples, 25 questions, glossary. Paper cover, 20 cents. 

20 Composition of Book Pages. By R. F. Salade 

Typographic features of the well-made book; its general arrangement of leaf and page, 
with notes upon the detail of title, preface, table of contents, chapter-headings, text, etc. 
48 pp. illustrated; 75 questions, glossary. Paper cover, 20 cents. 

21 . Tabular Composition. By Robert Seaver 

An analysis of elementary methods of tabular work, with hints about the methods of 
specialists. 40 pp. illustrated; 25 questions, glossary. Paper cover, 15 cents. 

22 . Applied Arithmetic for Printers . . . By E. E. Sheldon 

Elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade; addition, subtraction, 
multiplication, division, fractions, percentage, interest, discount, etc. Calculation of 
materials; paper weights and sizes, with standard tables and rules of computation, 30 pp. 
with index. Paper cover, 20 cents. 

Price of Part 1I-a Complete, cloth, SI.25; half leather, $2. 

PART II — (b) Machine Composition 

23. Typecasting and Composing Machines A. W. Finlay, Editor 

Section I—The Linotype.By L. A. Hornstein 

Section II—The Monotype. By A. F. Mackay 

Sedfion III— Other Type-casting and Type-setting Machines . By C. B. Slaughter 
Introductory treatises of instruction for advanced apprentices; mechanical principles and 
operations; keyboard fingering; metals used, remelting of metal and removal of dross, 
etc. Each 32 pp. illustrated; 45 questions, glossary. Paper cover, 25 cents each seftion. 

(Hr W “ Price of Part II-b Complete, cloth, SI.25; half leather, 42. 

38 








TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES for APPRENTICES 


PART III —Imposition and Stonework 

24. Locking Forms for the Job Press . . . By W. S. Carroll 

Things the composing-room apprentice should learn about stonework; wood and metal 
furniture, quoins, bearers, foundry guards, etc. Methods that increase efficiency. 40 pp. 
illustrated, 60 questions, glossary. Paper cover, 20 cents, 

25. Preparing Forms for the Cylinder Press . . By W. S. Carroll 

Theories of book and catalogue imposition; sheetwise and work-and-turn forms; mar¬ 
gins, fold-marks, register points; alignment of pages. Patent electro blocks, metal bases, 
register hooks, etc. 38 pp. illustrated, 45 questions, glossary. Paper cover, 25 cents. 

SUP" Price of Part III Complete, cloth binding, 75 cents; in half leather, SI. 

PART IV — Presswork 

26 Making Ready on Platen Presses ... By Daniel Baker 

The essential parts of a press and their functions; distinctive features of commonly used 
machines. Preparing the tympan, inks and rollers, regulating the impression, under¬ 
lays and overlays, setting gages, and other details explained. 48 pp. illustrated. 50 ques¬ 
tions, glossary. Paper cover, 25 cents. 

27. Flat-bed Cylinder Presswork . . . By Herbet L. Baker 

Preparing the press, adjustment of bed and cylinder, form rollers, ink fountain, distri¬ 
bution, grippers and delivery systems, underlaying and overlaying, modern overlay 
methods, offsetting and static elctricity in paper. 48 pp. illustrated, 45 questions, glos¬ 
sary. Paper cover, 25 cents. 

28. Pressroom Hints and Helps. By J. C. Oswald 

A collection of recipes and practical suggestions, culled from the experience of many 
ingenious pressmen. 48 pp. illustrated, 60 questions, glossary and index. Paper cover 
25 cents. 

29. Modern Processes of Printing 

A brief description of printing processes other than typography: the intaglio methods, 
lithography and the offset process, copperplate and steelplate printing, etc. 40 pp. illus¬ 
trated, 53 questions, glossary. Paper cover, 25 cents. 

Price of Part IV Complete, cloth binding, SI; half leather, SI.50. 

PART V — Pamphlet & Book Binding 

30. Pamphlet Binding. By Daniel Baker 

Hand and machine folding, sewing and wire stitching, ruling, numbering, perforating, 
rounding-cornering, and other specialties. A treatise of helpful suggestions. 32 pp. 
illustrated, 40 questions, glossary. Paper cover, 25 cents. 

31. Book Binding 

A treatise on the operations in binding a well-made book in cloth and in leather. Sizes 
- of books and typical styles of binding, with comments on materials employed. 40 
pp. illustrated, 50 questions, glossary. Paper cover, 25 cents. 

Price of Part V Complete, cloth binding, 65 cents; in half leather, $1. 


PART VI — Correct Literary Composition 

32. Word-study and English Grammar . . By F.W. Hamilton 

A handbook of English composition for the use of apprentices, with special reference to 
phases pertaining to the work of compositors, proofreaders, and editors. 36 pp. 75 ques¬ 
tions, index. Paper cover, 25 cents. 


39 




TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES for APPRENTICES 


Part VI (continued) — Correct Literary Co?7iposition 
3 3. Punctuation. By E. W. Hamilton 

A concise summary of the practical uses of punctuation-marks, including: quotation-marks, 
parentheses, brackets, dashes, etc. Omission of points in certain classes of composition, 
following'“office style, ” etc. 36 pp. illustrative examples, 50 questions, index. Paper 
cover, 15 cents. 

34. Use of Capitals. By F. W. Hamilton 

Common usages in English composition and peculiar requirements in printing. The cap¬ 
italization of words in different classes of printing. Spacing and legibility of capital lines. 
Small capitals and their uses. 20 pp. illustrative examples, index. Paper cover, 15 cents. 

35. Division of Words. By F. W. Hamilton 

Prevailing usages and rules for word-divisions at end of lines. Spelling, syllabication, 
pronunciation. Objectionable divisions and line-spacing. 16 pp. illustrative examples. 
25 questions, index. Paper covers, 15 cents. 

36. Compound Words. By F. W. Hamilton 

The use and abuse of the hyphen. Natural and arbitrary word combinations. Compound 
nouns, compound adjectives. Rules and their application. 20 pp. illustrative examples, 
25 questions, index. Paper cover, 15 cents. 

37. Abbreviations and Signs. By F. W. Hamilton 

A classified list of standard abbreviations, contractions, signs, etc., with suggestions for 
their proper use in typographic work of different kinds. Arranged for ready reference. 
24 pp. 40 questions. Paper cover, 15 cents. 

38. The Use of Italic. By F. W. Hamilton 

As companion letter for roman faces. Its use for emphasis, extracts, quotation, subheads, 
foreign words, titles, notes, and in scientific works. 20 pp, illustrative examples, 25 
questions, index. Paper cover, 15 cents. 

39. Proofreading. 

The technical phases of a proofreader’s work. Methods of handling copy and proof, 
holding copy, revising, etc. A list of reference works. Including an outline for a course 
of reading and study for those who wish to become proofreaders. 28 pp. 30 questions, 
index. Paper covers, 15 cents. 

40. Preparation of Printer’s Copy . By F. W. Hamilton 

A guide for authors, editors, proofreaders, compositors, and others, in the preparation of 
copy for the printer. Helpful suggestions about page numbering, paragraphing, how to 
indicate changes in manuscript (insertions, erasures, transpositions, etc.) Marking copy 
for style, etc. Value of sketch or “ layout” for unusual forms of composition. Editing 
copy vs. editing proof. 24 pp. illustrative examples, index. Paper cover, 25 cents. 

41. Printer’s Manual of “Style”. By H. P. Porter 

A reference compilation of approved rules, usages, and suggestions relating to punc¬ 
tuation, capitalization, paragraph indentions, use of italics, accents, numerals, and sim¬ 
ilar elements of composition; offered by eminent printers, proofreaders, publishers, 
and others. 36 pp. index. Paper cover, 15 cents. 

CElT"’ Price of Part VI (not including No. 42) cloth binding SI.50; in half leather &2. 

42. The Printer’s Dictionary. By A. A. Stewart 

A handbook of definitions and miscellaneous information about all processes of printing* 
Technical terms explained. Eighteen hundred topics arranged alphabetically for ready 
reference. 200 pp. illustrated. Cloth binding, price $2. 

40 







TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES for APPRENTICES 


PART VII — Elements of Design 

43. Elements of Typographic Design . . By Edmund G. Gress 

An introduction to the study of typographic design: Type faces, harmony, appropriate¬ 
ness, tone and contrast, proportion, balance, ornamentation, etc. 48 pp. illustrated, 3 5 
questions, index. Paper cover, 15 cents. 

44. Essentials of Good Design. By F. V. Cann 

Good printing must be well planned, appropriate, attractive. Examples analyzed. Def¬ 
initions: balance, spacing, relationship of parts. Proportion. Borders, repeating of 
units. Ornaments, spacing. Book plates. Bibliography. 30 pp. illustrated, 25 ques¬ 
tions, index. Paper cover, 15 cents. 

45. Typographic Design: Lettering .... By F. V. Cann 

Gothic (plain). Gothic (text). Roman. Italic. Script. Unical. Modern letters. Freak 
letters. Special letters. Initials, monograms and ciphers. Bibliography. 30 pp. illus¬ 
trated, 40 questions, index. Paper cover, 15 cents. 

46. Typographic Design: Layouts. By F. V. Cann 

Methods of laying out margins. Planning dummies for books, catalogs, etc. Proportions 
of pages, title pages, etc. Layouts for books, catalogs, circulars, posters, advertisements, 
cards, calendars, letterheads, tables, envelopes, labels, business forms, dummies, etc. 
Display: Emphasis by size of type; kind or style of type. Position. Spacing. Con¬ 
trast. Color. 52 pp. illustrated, 55 questions, index. Paper cover. 25 cents 

47. Typographic Design: Advertising .... By F. V. Cann 

Trade Marks. Monograms. Ciphers. Posters. Cards. Novelties. Bibliography. 30 pp. 
illustrated, 40 questions, index. Paper cover, 15 cents. 

48. Rudiments of Color Printing. By F. V. Cann 

Theory of color. Spectrum. Pigments. Definitons Scales. Tests. Artistic Phases: 
Definitions — hue, value, intensity (chroma), contrast, harmony, discord. Color 
Schemes: Inks on tinted papers. Bibliography. 30 pp. illustrated, 56 questions, index. 
Paper cover, 15 cents. 

Price of Part VII Complete, cloth binding, $1.50; in half leather. $2. 


PART VIII — History of Printing 


49 . Ancient Writing and Printing . . . By F. W. Hamilton 

First methods of communicating with the absent. Picture writing. Birth of the alphabet. 
Books their manufacture, ornamentation and preservation in ancient, classic and medie¬ 
val times. Just before Gutenburg. 48 pp.illustrated. 50 questions. Paper cover, 25 cents. 


50. 


51. 


52. 


The Invention of Typography . . . .By Lewis C. Gandy 

A brief sketch of the invention, spread, and progress of printing in the fifteenth century. 
Story of Gutenburg, Fust, and Schoeffer. 48 pp. illustrated with reproductions of examples 
of early printing; 50 questions, index. Paper cover, 25 cents. 


Stories of Famous Early Printers . . By Lewis C. Gandy 

Nicholas Jenson, Aldus Manutius, Christopher Plantin. Robert Stephens, the Elzevirs, 
the Didots, Gambattista Bodini, and others. 50 pp. illustrated, 50 questions, index. 
Paper cover, 25 cents. 

Printing in England. By Lewis C. Gandy 

William Caxton and his work. Moxon, Caslon. Baskerville Pickering Whittinghams, 
Richardson, William Morris. Oxford University Press. 48 pp. illustrated, 50 ques¬ 
tions, index. Paper cover, 25 cents. 


41 



TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES for APPRENTICES 


Part VIII (continued) — History of Printing 

53. Early Printing in America .... By Lewis C. Gandy 

The first presses: Cambridge, Boston, Philadelphia, New York. Stories of Benjamin 
Franklin, Isaiah Thomas, and others. The work of Theodore L. De Vinne. 48 pp. 
illustrated. 50 questions, index. Paper cover, 25 cents. 

54. History of American Printing Machines By Lewis C. Gandy 

The hand press and its successors. Ruggles, Adams, Gordon, Gaily, Hoe, Potter, Cot¬ 
trell, Miehle, etc. 48 pp. illustrated, 75 questions, index. Paper cover, 25 cents. 

55. Typefounding in America .... By Lewis C. Gandy 

Stories of early American type makers and inventors: Binney, Ronaldson, Bruce, Dick¬ 
inson, Barth, etc. Ottmar Mergenthaler and the Linotype. Talbot Lanston and the 
Monotype. 46 pp. illustrated, 40 questions, index. Paper cover, 25 cents. 

Price of Part VIII Complete, cloth binding, SI. 50; in half leather, $2. 


PART IX — Cost Accounting If Estimating 

56. Elements of Cost in Printing 

Interest on capital invested. Rent, power, heat, light, insurance, taxes, depreciation, 
payroll, paper stock, materials, supplies, shipping. Bookeeping, stationery, advertising, 
office expense, bad debts, spoiled work, etc. 50 pp. illustrated, 75 questions, index. 
Paper cover, 15 cents. 

57. Use of a Cost System 

Standard cost-finding forms and their uses. What they should show. Hour product and 
hour charge. Productive and non-productive time. Overhead expense and its distribu- 
• tion. Depreciation and replacement. Cost elements and profit. Total cost and selling 
price. 40 pp. illustrated, 100 questions, index. Paper cover, 15 cents. 

58. Buying and Selling Printing Paper 

Paper trade customs. Estimating quantities required, allowance for spoilage, cost of cut¬ 
ting and handling. Ruled goods, staples and specialties. Profit and loss. 32 pp. illus¬ 
trated, 35 questions, index. Paper cover, 15 cents 

59. Cost of Type Composition 

The kind of copy furnished, cost of changes, author’s corrections, charges for extras 
(notes, heads, tables). Comparison of costs in hand work and machine work. Charges 
for special material, electros, etc. 32 pp. illustrated, 50 questions, index. Paper cover, 
15 cents. 

60. Cost of Presswork 

Hour costs for presses of different kinds and sizes. Makeready time and running time. 
Grade of work and speed of press. Charges for ink, overlays, washups, press proofs, etc. 
Bronzing, embossing, and other operations. 38 pp. illustrated, 50 questions, index. Paper 
cover, 15 cents. 

61. Pamphlet and Job Binding 

Comparative costs of different operations. Hand and machine folding, wire-stitching, 
sewing, stamping, etc. Specialty binding, trade customs, etc. Necessity for accurate, 
detailed specifications. 38 pp. illustrated, index. Paper cover, 15 cents. 

Price of Part IX Complete, cloth binding, SI; in half leather, SI.50. 


42 
















































































































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